EENS 1110 |
Physical Geology
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Tulane University | Prof. Stephen A. Nelson |
Mineral Resources |
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Mineral Resources Almost all Earth materials are used by humans for something. We require metals for making machines, sands and gravels for making roads and buildings, sand for making computer chips, limestone and gypsum for making concrete, clays for making ceramics, gold, silver, copper and aluminum for making electric circuits, and diamonds and corundum (sapphire, ruby, emerald) for abrasives and jewelry. In this discussion, we hope to answer the following questions:
Mineral resources can be divided into two major categories - Metallic and Nonmetallic. Metallic resources are things like Gold, Silver, Tin, Copper, Lead, Zinc, Iron, Nickel, Chromium, and Aluminum. Nonmetallic resources are things like sand, gravel, gypsum, halite, Uranium, dimension stone. A mineral resource is a volume of rock enriched in one or more useful materials. In this sense a mineral refers to a useful material, a definition that is different from the way we defined a mineral back in Chapter 5. Here the word mineral can be any substance that comes from the Earth. Finding and exploiting mineral resources requires the application of the principles of geology that you we have discussed or will discuss throughout this course. Some minerals are used as they are found in the ground, i.e. they require no further processing or very little processing. For example - gemstones, sand, gravel, and salt (halite). Most minerals must be processed before they are used. For example:
Because such things as extraction costs, labor costs, and energy costs vary with time and from country to country, what constitutes an economically viable deposit of minerals varies considerably in time and place. In general, the higher the concentration of the substance, the more economical it is to mine. Thus we define an ore as a body of material from which one or more valuable substances can be extracted economically. An ore deposit will consist of ore minerals, that contain the valuable substance. Gangue minerals are minerals that occur in the deposit but do not contain the valuable substance. Since economics is what controls the grade or concentration of the substance in a deposit that makes the deposit profitable to mine, different substances require different concentrations to be profitable. But, the concentration that can be economically mined changes due to economic conditions such as demand for the substance and the cost of extraction.
Examples:
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For every substance we can determine the concentration necessary in a mineral deposit for profitable mining. By dividing this economical concentration by the average crustal abundance for that substance, we can determine a value called the concentration factor. The table below lists average crustal abundances and concentration factors for some of the important materials that are commonly sought. For example, Al, which has an average crustal abundance of 8%, has a concentration factor of 3 to 4. This means that an economic deposit of Aluminum must contain between 3 and 4 times the average crustal abundance, that is between 24 and 32% Aluminum, to be economical. |
Substance |
Average Crustal Abundance |
Concentration Factor |
Al (Aluminum) | 8.0% |
3 to 4 |
Fe (Iron) | 5.8% |
6 to7 |
Ti (Titanium) | 0.86% |
25 to 100 |
Cr (Chromium) | 0.0096% |
4,000 to 5,000 |
Zn (Zinc) | 0.0082% |
300 |
Cu (Copper) | 0.0058% |
100 to 200 |
Ag (Silver) | 0.000008% |
~1000 |
Pt (Platinum) | 0.0000005% |
600 |
Au (Gold) | 0.0000002% |
4,000 to 5,000 |
U (Uranium) | 0.00016% |
500 to 1000 |
Note that we will not likely ever run out of a useful substance, since we can always find deposits of any substance that have lower concentrations than are currently economical. If the supply of currently economical deposits is reduced, the price will increase and the concentration factor will increase. |
Origin of Mineral Resources Mineral deposits can be classified on the basis of the mechanism responsible for concentrating the valuable substance.
Magmatic process such as partial melting, crystal fractionation, or crystal settling in a magma chamber can concentrate ore minerals containing valuable substances by taking elements that were once widely dispersed in low concentrations in the magma and concentrating them in minerals that separate from the magma. Examples:
Hydrothermal deposits are produced when groundwater circulates to depth and heats up either by coming near a hot igneous body at depth or by circulating to great depth along the geothermal gradient. Such hot water can dissolve valuable substances throughout a large volume of rock. As the hot water moves into cooler areas of the crust, the dissolved substances are precipitated from the hot water solution. If the cooling takes place rapidly, such as might occur in open fractures or upon reaching a body of cool surface water, then precipitation will take place over a limited area, resulting in a concentration of the substance attaining a higher value than was originally present in the rocks through which the water passed.
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Although clastic sedimentary processes can form mineral deposits, the term sedimentary mineral deposit is restricted to chemical sedimentation, where minerals containing valuable substances are precipitated directly out of water. Examples:
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The velocity of flowing water determines whether minerals are carried in suspension or deposited. When the velocity of the water slows, large minerals or minerals with a higher density are deposited. Heavy minerals like gold, diamond, and magnetite of the same size as a low density mineral like quartz will be deposited at a higher velocity than the quartz, thus the heavy minerals will be concentrated in areas where water current velocity is low. Mineral deposits formed in this way are called placer deposits. They occur in any area where current velocity is low, such as in point bar deposits, between ripple marks, behind submerged bars, or in holes on the bottom of a stream. The California gold rush in 1849 began when someone discovered rich placer deposits of gold in streams draining the Sierra Nevada Mountains. The gold originally formed in hydrothermal veins, but it was eroded out of the veins and carried in streams where it was deposited in placer deposits.
During chemical weathering and original body of rock is greatly reduced in volume by the process of leaching, which removes ions from the original rock. Elements that are not leached form the rock thus occur in higher concentration in the residual rock. The most important ore of Aluminum, bauxite, forms in tropical climates where high temperatures and high water throughput during chemical weathering produces highly leached lateritic soils rich in both iron and aluminum. Most bauxite deposits are relatively young because they form near the surface of the Earth and are easily removed by erosion acting over long periods of time. In addition, an existing mineral deposit can be turned in to a more highly concentrated mineral deposit by weathering in a process called secondary enrichment. |
Mineral Deposits and Plate Tectonics | |
Because different types of mineral deposits form in different environments, plate tectonics plays a critical role in the location of different geological environments. The diagram to the right shows the different mineral deposits that occur in different tectonic environments. |
Mineral Exploration and Production Ores are located by evidence of metal enrichment. Geologists look for hints in rocks exposed near the surface, for example, the enrichment process often results in discoloration of the soil and rock. When such hints are found, geophysical survey's involving measuring gravity, magnetism, or radioactivity are conducted. Geochemical surveys are conducted which analyze the composition of water, sediment, soil, rocks, and sometimes even plants and trees. Once it is determined that a valuable material could be present, the deposit is assessed by conducting core drilling to collect subsurface samples, followed by chemical analysis of the samples to determine the grade of the ore If the samples show promise of being economic to mine, then plans are made to determine how it will me mined. If the ore body is within 100 meters from the surface, open-pit mines, large excavations open to the air.are used to extract the ore before processing. Open pit mines are less expensive and less dangerous than tunnel mines, although they do leave large scars on the land surface. If the ore body is deeper, or narrowly dispersed within the non-ore bearing rock tunneling is necessary to extract the ore from underground mines. Mine tunnels are linked to a vertical shaft, called and adit. Ores are removed from the walls of the tunnels by drilling and blasting, with the excavated ores being hauled to the surface from processing. Underground mines are both more expensive and dangerous than open pit mines and still leave scares on the landscape where non-ore bearing rock is discarded as tailings. .
Global Mineral Needs Because the processes that form ores operate on geologic time scales, the most economic mineral resources are essentially nonrenewable.New deposits cannot be generated in human timescales. But, as mentioned previously, as the reserves of materials become depleted it is possible to find other sources that are more costly to exploit. Furthermore, mineral resources are not evenly distributed. How long current mineral resources will last depends on consumption rates and reserve amounts. Environmental Issues Extraction and processing has large environmental impacts in terms of such things as air quality, surface water quality, groundwater quality, soils, vegetation, and aesthetics. Acid mine drainage is one example, Sulfide minerals newly exposed to Oxygen and water near the surface create sulfuric acid. Rainwater falling on the mine tailings becomes acidified and can create toxic conditions in the runoff. This can mobilize potentially dangerous heavy metals and kill organisms in the streams draining the tailings. |
Questions on this material that could be asked on an exam.
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